The Odyssey

The provided text consists of the title page for the edition of 'The Odyssey' published by The University of Chicago Press. It identifies the primary author as Homer and the translator, who also provided the introduction and notes, as Daniel Mendelsohn. The page serves as the formal bibliographic entry for the work, establishing the authorship, translation credits, and publication details in Chicago.

The introduction to the Odyssey explores the epic's immense influence on Western literature and its origins in the Bronze Age and Archaic Greece. It addresses the 'Homeric Question,' debating whether the poems were the work of a single genius or evolved from an oral tradition of preliterate bards using prefabricated formulas. Structurally, the author argues that while the famous adventures (Apologoi) are prominent, the narrative's core is the 'situation at home' in Ithaka, focusing on three interwoven crises: marital, coming-of-age, and political. The text emphasizes the central role of xenia (hospitality) as a universal code of conduct and explores the nature of mortal experience, contrasting the Odyssey's focus on human relationships and the remoteness of the gods with the more divine-centric Iliad. Central to the analysis is the character of Odysseus, whose 'polytropos' nature allows him to oscillate between heroic renown and utter anonymity, ultimately seeking reintegration into his family and community.

In this chapter, the author details his translation philosophy and technical methodology for a new English version of the Odyssey. He argues that a translation focusing solely on plot while ignoring form commits a 'double injustice,' as the original Greek dactylic hexameter's rhythm, length, and structural nuances are essential to the poem's meaning. The author contrasts his line-for-line approach with other translations, such as Emily Wilson's, which he claims omits significant content to fit the constraints of iambic pentameter. He emphasizes the importance of reproducing enjambment, alliteration, and assonance to convey emotion and texture, such as Odysseus's agitation or the sound of physical decay. Additionally, the author discusses the restoration of formulaic epithets, seeking to recover their 'arresting strangeness' and avoid ossified clichés by analyzing the etymology of terms like 'glaukôpis' and 'koîlos'. His goal is to provide a version that balances nobility and plainness, ensuring the language reflects the ancient setting without being jolted by overly modern terminology.

In this pronunciation guide, Daniel Mendelsohn explains his specific approach to transliterating Greek names and words in his translation of The Odyssey. Influenced by his mentor Mary Renault, Mendelsohn avoids traditional Latin orthography in favor of a system that mimics Greek spellings to provide a 'bracing effect' and force readers to engage with the 'authentic, rather than spiky pronunciation' of the language. He details specific phonetic choices, such as using 'k' for kappa to avoid softening, 'kh' for khi, and 'th' for voiceless theta. He also outlines his treatment of masculine endings (-os instead of -us), the use of accents to indicate stress, and the use of the diaresis to separate vowels. While he generally adheres to these rules to nudge readers toward the original Greek sounds, he makes exceptions for names that have become deeply embedded in English culture, such as 'Circe' and 'Achilles'.

The chapter titled 'Further Reading' serves as a curated bibliography for general readers seeking to deepen their understanding of Homer's Odyssey and the world it depicts. It provides a comprehensive list of scholarly articles, books, and essay collections that cover a wide range of critical perspectives, including analyses of gender roles, the historical context of the Trojan War, the psychology of combat trauma, and the cultural history of the epic's reception. The list includes works by prominent scholars such as Erich Auerbach, M.I. Finley, and Jonathan Shay, offering resources that span from mid-20th century classics to contemporary guides published in the 21st century.

The provided text for chapter 5, titled '70', consists solely of a description of a map titled 'Odysseus’ World'. This map depicts the geographical layout of Greece, its islands, and Turkey, along with five specific seas—the Ionian, Tyrrhenian, Aegean, Mediterranean, and Black—dating from approximately 1600 to 1150 BCE. The content serves as a spatial and temporal reference for the setting of the narrative.

The chapter opens with an invocation to the Muse and a divine council on Olympus. While Poseidon remains hostile toward Odysseus, Zeus and Athena agree that the hero should be allowed to return home from Kalypso's island. Athena descends to Ithaka disguised as Mentes to find Telémakhos struggling under the burden of the Suitors, who are consuming his estate. Athena encourages Telémakhos to abandon his childish ways, call an assembly, and travel to Pylos and Sparta to seek news of his father. Following Athena's departure, Telémakhos experiences a surge of confidence and strength. He asserts his authority over his mother, Penelope, and confronts the Suitors, specifically Antínoös and Eurýmakhos, declaring his intent to expel them from his home. The chapter emphasizes Telémakhos's transition toward manhood and the divine orchestration of Odysseus's eventual homecoming.

Telémakhos summons an assembly of the Ithakans to denounce the Suitors for consuming his estate and harassing his mother, Penelope. Despite the support of Mentor and a dire omen of two fighting eagles interpreted by the prophet Halithérses, the Suitors—led by Antínoös and Eurýmakhos—dismiss the warnings and blame Penelope's cunning for their continued presence. Telémakhos requests a ship and crew to seek news of his father, Odysseus, in Pylos and Sparta. Following the assembly, Athena, disguised as Mentor, provides divine guidance and strategic support. Telémakhos asserts his maturity against the Suitors' mockery and, despite the concerns of his nurse Eurykleía, prepares provisions from Odysseus's storeroom. Athena facilitates the secret departure by recruiting volunteers, securing a ship from Noêmôn, and casting a divine sleep over the Suitors, allowing Telémakhos and his crew to set sail unnoticed.

Telémakhos and Athena arrive at Pylos, where they are welcomed by King Nestor and his sons during a sacrifice to Poseidon. Seeking news of his father, Telémakhos listens as Nestor recounts the chaotic aftermath of the Trojan War, including the conflict between Agamemnon and Menelaos and the murder of Agamemnon by Aigisthos and Klytaimnêstra, which was eventually avenged by Orestes. Nestor advises Telémakhos to visit Menelaos in Lakedaímôn for further information. After receiving hospitality and participating in ritual sacrifices to Athena, including a heifer with gold-sheathed horns, Telémakhos departs Pylos in a chariot escorted by Peisístratos, traveling toward the house of Dioklês.

Prince Telémakhos and Peisístratos arrive at the palace of Menelaos in Lakedaímôn during a double wedding celebration for Menelaos's children, Hermiónê and Megapénthes. After receiving lavish hospitality, the guests share stories of Odysseus's cunning during the Trojan War and mourn their lost comrades. Menelaos recounts his own delayed return, specifically his capture of the Old Man of the Sea, Proteus, on the island of Pharos. Proteus reveals the fates of other Achaean leaders: Aías was killed by Poseidon, and Agamemnon was murdered by Aigisthos. Crucially, Proteus informs Menelaos that Odysseus is alive but detained by the nymph Kalypso. After receiving a precious silver and gold bowl from Menelaos as a keepsake, Telémakhos prepares to return home. Meanwhile, in Ithaka, the Suitors discover Telémakhos's journey and plot to ambush him in the strait between Ithaka and Sámê. Penelope is devastated by the news but is comforted by a divine dream sent by Athena in the form of Iphthímê, who assures her of her son's safety.

The gods convene in council, where Athena advocates for Odysseus, who is being held by the nymph Kalypso. Zeus orders Hermes to command Kalypso to release him. Despite her resentment toward the gods' jealousy of divine-mortal unions, Kalypso complies, providing Odysseus with tools to build a raft and provisions for his journey. After sailing for seventeen days guided by the stars, Odysseus is attacked by Poseidon, who stirs up a violent storm to prevent his homecoming. His craft is destroyed, but he is aided by the sea goddess Ino, who provides a magical veil, and Athena, who manipulates the winds to push him toward the land of the Phaiêkians. After a perilous struggle against jagged cliffs and crashing waves that leave him physically broken, Odysseus finds refuge at a river mouth and eventually falls asleep in a wooded area.

In Book Six, Athena intervenes to facilitate Odysseus's rescue by influencing Nausikáa, the daughter of King Alkínoös of the Phaiêkians. After a divinely inspired dream prompts Nausikáa to visit the river for laundry, she encounters a naked and bedraggled Odysseus. Through a combination of Odysseus's cunning speech and Athena's physical enhancement of his appearance, Nausikáa provides him with food, clothing, and directions to her father's palace, though she cautions him to remain hidden to protect her reputation. Following her guidance, Odysseus visits Athena's grove to pray for the Phaiêkians' pity. While Athena hears his prayer, she remains hidden to avoid the wrath of Poseidon, the Earth-Shaker, who previously shipwrecked him.

Guided and concealed by Athena in the form of a maiden, Odysseus enters the city of the Phaiêkians and reaches the palace of King Alkínoös. After an entreaty to Queen Arétê, he is welcomed by the king and his council. Odysseus recounts his harrowing journey from Ogygía, where he was detained for seven years by the goddess Kalypso, and describes how Nausikáa provided him with essential food and clothing upon his arrival on Skhería. Alkínoös, upholding the laws of hospitality, provides Odysseus with food, drink, and a place of honor. He expresses approval of Odysseus, offering him a home and his daughter's hand in marriage should he choose to stay, while promising to arrange a ship for his return home the following day. The chapter concludes with Odysseus praying to Zeus for the fulfillment of these promises before being settled into a bed by Arétê's attendants.

In Book Eight, King Alkínoös and the Phaiêkians extend lavish hospitality to Odysseus, arranging for his return home with a specially prepared ship and a grand feast. During the festivities, the blind bard Demódokos performs songs of the Trojan War, including the story of the Trojan Horse, which move Odysseus to secret tears and prompt Alkínoös to inquire about his identity. The chapter also features athletic competitions where Odysseus, after being taunted by Eurýalos, asserts his strength by outperforming the Phaiêkians in a discus throw. Interwoven with these events is a mythological tale sung by Demódokos regarding Hephaístos, who uses his craftiness to trap Ares and Aphrodite in unbreakable fetters. The chapter concludes with the Phaiêkians providing Odysseus with guest-gifts, clothing, and a bath, while Alkínoös describes the sentient nature of Phaiêkian ships and recalls a prophecy regarding the city's eventual destruction by Poseidon.

Odysseus begins recounting his journey to King Alkínoös, detailing his homeland of Ithaka and the early trials of his voyage. After sacking Ísmaros and facing a counterattack by the Kíkones, Odysseus and his crew are blown off course by Zeus, leading them to the land of the Lotos-Eaters, where some men lose their desire to return home. The narrative focuses heavily on their encounter with the lawless Cyclops Polyphêmos. Trapped in the giant's cave and witnessing the consumption of his crew, Odysseus employs cunning over brute force. He intoxicates Polyphêmos with wine and blinds him with a sharpened olive-wood stake, using the pseudonym 'No-One' to prevent other Cyclopes from intervening. Although they successfully escape by clinging to the undersides of rams, Odysseus's hubris leads him to reveal his true identity. This allows Polyphêmos, a son of Poseidon, to pray for a divine curse upon Odysseus's journey, ensuring further hardship on his path home.

Odysseus and his crew visit Aiolía, where Aíolos provides a pouch of winds to aid their return. However, the crew's greed leads them to open the pouch, blowing them back to Aiolía, where Aíolos banishes them as being hated by the gods. After a devastating attack by the giant Laistrygónians that destroys most of the fleet, the survivors reach Aiaíê. There, the goddess Circe transforms the men into swine. With the assistance of Hermes, who provides the magical herb môly and strategic instructions, Odysseus resists Circe's enchantments and forces her to restore his men. After spending a year feasting in her halls, Circe informs Odysseus that he must journey to the underworld to consult the blind seer Teiresias before he can return to Ithaka. As they prepare to depart, the youngest crew member, Elpênor, dies in a fatal fall from the roof.

Odysseus travels to the land of the Kimmérians at the edge of Ocean to perform a nekyia, consulting the shade of the prophet Teiresias. Through specific rituals involving libations and blood sacrifice, Odysseus summons the dead, encountering the shade of his comrade Elpênor, who requests a proper burial, and his mother Antíkleia, who reveals she died of longing for him. Teiresias provides a prophecy regarding Odysseus's arduous journey home, warning him of Poseidon's grudge and the danger of the cattle of Helios on Thrinakía. Odysseus further explores Hades, speaking with Agamemnon, who warns him of domestic betrayal, and Achilles, who expresses a preference for earthly servitude over ruling the dead. He observes the eternal punishments of Tantalos and Sísyphos and encounters the phantom of Herakles. Overwhelmed by the thronging dead, Odysseus departs the underworld in terror and returns to his ship to sail along the Stream of Ocean.

After returning to Aiaíê to bury Elpênor, Odysseus receives warnings from Circe regarding the Sirens, the rocks of the 'Wanderers', Skylla, Kharybdis, and the cattle of Helios. Odysseus successfully navigates past the Sirens by plugging his crew's ears with wax and being bound to the mast. He then steers through the strait between Skylla, who devours six men, and the whirlpool Kharybdis. Upon reaching the island of Helios, Odysseus attempts to avoid the land, but Eurýlokhos convinces the exhausted crew to stay. Despite an oath not to harm the sacred cattle, the crew—led by Eurýlokhos while Odysseus is asleep—slaughters the animals to avoid starvation. This act of willful heedlessness provokes the wrath of Helios and Zeus. After a month of survival on Circe's provisions and wild quarry, the crew departs, only for Zeus to destroy the ship with a thunderbolt. All of Odysseus's companions perish, leaving him as the sole survivor to drift toward Ogygía.

Odysseus is escorted by the Phaiêkians to Ithaka, where he is left asleep on the shore with treasures. Poseidon, vengeful against the Phaiêkians for their hospitality to Odysseus, turns their ship to stone upon its return. Odysseus wakes up in a mist-shrouded Ithaka, unrecognizable to his land, and encounters Athena in disguise. He attempts to deceive her with a fabricated story about his origins in Crete, which she sees through with amusement. Athena eventually reveals her identity and informs Odysseus of the Suitors who have occupied his palace for three years. Together, they hide the Phaiêkian treasures in a cave and plot the downfall of the Suitors. To ensure his safety and the success of their plan, Athena transforms Odysseus's appearance to make him look like a vile old man in rags, instructing him to seek out his swineherd while she summons Telémakhos from Sparta.

Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, arrives at the home of Eúmaios, the loyal swineherd. Despite his own grief over Odysseus's presumed death and the depletion of the estate's wealth by the insolent Suitors, Eúmaios provides the stranger with food, wine, and shelter, adhering to the laws of xenia. To maintain his disguise and test Eúmaios's character, Odysseus fabricates a complex history, claiming to be a warrior from Crete and the son of Kástor. He recounts a series of misfortunes, including a betrayal in Libya, a shipwreck caused by Zeus's lightning, and an attempt by Thesprotian sailors to enslave him. While Eúmaios expresses skepticism regarding the stranger's claims about Odysseus's treasures, he remains virtuous and generous. Odysseus further tests this generosity by sharing a tale from the Trojan War, eventually securing a cloak and a bed for the night, all while predicting that the true Odysseus will return home within the month.

In Book Fifteen, Pallas Athena urges Telémakhos to return to Ithaka to protect his mother and inheritance from the Suitors, warning him of an ambush planned between Ithaka and Sámê. After receiving gifts from Menelaos and Helen—including a silver mixing-bowl and an embroidered robe—Telémakhos departs Lakedaímôn. Along the way, he takes aboard Theoklýmenos, a fugitive prophet from Argos. Upon arriving in Ithaka, Telémakhos arranges for his companions and the seer to be hosted. Simultaneously, Odysseus remains in disguise at the hut of Eúmaios the swineherd. Odysseus tests Eúmaios's loyalty by suggesting he serve the Suitors, a move Eúmaios strongly discourages due to the Suitors' extreme violence. Eúmaios shares his tragic history of being kidnapped from Syría as a prince and sold into slavery, while also informing Odysseus of the death of his mother and the deep grief of his father, Laërtes.

In Book Sixteen, Telémakhos returns to Eúmaios's hut, where he is reunited with his father, Odysseus, who has been in disguise. After an emotional reunion facilitated by Athena, who restores Odysseus's youthful appearance, the father and son plot a secret strategy to eliminate the Suitors. They agree to keep Odysseus's return hidden from everyone, including Penelope and Laërtes, while planning to test the loyalty of the household servants. Meanwhile, the Suitors, led by Antínoös, plot to murder Telémakhos upon his return to Ithaka. Penelope confronts Antínoös about this conspiracy, though Eurýmakhos attempts to deceive her with false reassurances. The chapter concludes with Athena disguising Odysseus as an old man in rags to allow him to further deceive Eúmaios and assess the state of his home.

Telémakhos returns to the palace and reunites with Penelope and Eurykleía, sharing news from Pylos and Lakedaímôn that Odysseus is alive but held by Kalypso. Meanwhile, Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, is led to the city by the swineherd Eúmaios. Along the way, they are insulted by the goatherd Melánthios. Upon arriving at the palace, Odysseus is recognized by his old dog, Argos, who dies shortly after sensing his master's presence. Inside the palace, Odysseus is assaulted by the leading Suitor, Antínoös, who hurls a stool at him after Odysseus is denied food. Penelope, hearing of the stranger, wishes to interview him to learn of her husband's fate, but Odysseus delays the meeting until sunset to avoid the Suitors. The chapter concludes with Eúmaios privately warning Telémakhos to remain vigilant against plotting Achaeans before departing the palace to tend to his livestock.

In the halls of Odysseus, a beggar named Íros challenges the disguised Odysseus to a bare-knuckle fight for the prize of sausage-casings and the right to feast with the Suitors. With Athena's divine assistance, Odysseus enhances his physical appearance and easily defeats Íros with a single blow to the neck, leaving him humiliated. Following the bout, Odysseus warns the Suitor Amphínomos that the master of the house is returning and bloodshed is imminent. Athena then enhances Penelope's beauty, prompting her to appear before the Suitors to advise Telémakhos and strategically pressure the Suitors into providing gifts. The evening continues with a sharp verbal confrontation between Odysseus and the insolent maidservant Melanthô, followed by a series of insults from Eurýmakhos, who mocks Odysseus's appearance and utility. Odysseus responds by challenging Eurýmakhos to contests of mowing, plowing, and war. The tension nearly escalates to violence when Eurýmakhos attempts to attack Odysseus but accidentally strikes a wine-pourer, before Amphínomos intervenes to restore order and the Suitors depart for the night.

Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, coordinates with Telémakhos to secretly remove the palace weapons to the storeroom, ensuring the Suitors cannot use them during the coming slaughter. To gain Penelope's trust, Odysseus assumes the false identity of Aíthôn from Crete, providing precise details about Odysseus's clothing, including a gold brooch, to convince her of his credibility. During a ritual foot-washing, the nurse Eurykleía recognizes Odysseus by a distinct scar on his leg from a boar hunt with his grandfather Autólykos; Odysseus swears her to secrecy under threat of death. Penelope shares a prophetic dream of an eagle killing twenty geese, which Odysseus interprets as the Suitors' impending doom. Penelope reveals her plan to marry whoever can successfully complete an archery contest with Odysseus's bow. The chapter concludes with Penelope retiring to her 'bed of sorrows,' where she weeps for her husband until Athena induces sleep.

Odysseus, disguised as a stranger, remains in his palace forecourt, battling internal rage while observing the Suitors and the women of his household. After receiving divine reassurance and sleep from Athena, he witnesses Penelope's deep grief and receives omens from Zeus and a slave girl. As the Suitors gather for a feast, they plot to murder Telémakhos, though their plans are interrupted by a bird omen. Odysseus endures insults and a physical attack from Ktêsippos, who hurls a cow's hoof at him. Telémakhos asserts his maturity by rebuking the Suitors for their lack of nobility and their mistreatment of guests and slaves. The atmosphere shifts as Athena induces a fit of unnatural laughter among the Suitors, while the prophet Theoklýmenos delivers a terrifying vision of blood-spattered walls and impending death. Despite these warnings, the Suitors continue to mock the strangers, while Telémakhos and Odysseus silently prepare for the coming retribution.

Inspired by Athena, Penelope challenges the Suitors to a contest: whoever can string Odysseus's great bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axes will win her hand. The Suitors, including Leiôdes, fail to string the bow despite attempts to soften it with heat and grease. Telémakhos nearly succeeds on his fourth attempt but is stopped by Odysseus, who remains in disguise. Odysseus reveals his true identity to his loyal servants, Eúmaios and Philoítios, and they plan the signal for him to receive the weapon. When Odysseus requests to try the bow, the Suitors—led by Antínoös and Eurýmakhos—mock him and argue that allowing a beggar to succeed would be a social disgrace. Penelope defends the stranger's right as a guest, but Telémakhos asserts his patriarchal authority over the household, granting the request and ordering the women to their rooms. Odysseus effortlessly strings the bow and shoots the arrow through the axes, accompanied by a thunderous omen from Zeus, signaling the start of his retaliation.

Odysseus reveals his identity by slaughtering the Suitors in his hall, beginning with Antínoös and Eurýmakhos. Supported by Telémakhos and two loyal servants, Odysseus engages in a violent battle. Despite the Suitors' attempts to arm themselves via Melánthios the goatherd, Odysseus and his allies prevail with the divine intervention of Athena, who tests their strength before terrifying the remaining Suitors with her aegis. Following the slaughter, Odysseus executes those who betrayed him, including the priest Leiôdes and twelve female slaves, while sparing the bard Phêmios and the herald Médôn upon Telémakhos's intervention. After purifying the palace with sulfur and fire, Odysseus is reunited with the loyal women of his household.

Following the slaughter of the Suitors, Odysseus is reunited with Penelope. Initially skeptical of Eurykleía's news, Penelope tests Odysseus's identity by suggesting their immovable bed be moved, a secret known only to them. Once convinced, the couple emotionally reunites, and Athena divinely enhances Odysseus's appearance and delays the dawn to prolong their time together. They spend the night sharing stories of their respective hardships—Penelope describing the havoc wrought by the Suitors and Odysseus recounting his long, perilous journey from the Kíkones and the Cyclops to his imprisonment by Kalypso and his reception by the Phaiêkians. Odysseus also reveals a prophecy from Teiresias regarding future trials he must face before achieving a gentle death. As morning arrives, Odysseus instructs Penelope to remain secluded to avoid rumors regarding the massacre, while he departs with Telémakhos and his servants to visit his father, guided by Athena.

Chapter 30, 'Book Twenty-Four', concludes the Odyssey by resolving both domestic and cosmic conflicts. Hermes guides the shades of the slaughtered Suitors to the field of asphodel in Hades, where they encounter the shades of Achilles and Agamemnon. Through their dialogue, the narrative reflects on the inevitability of fate and the virtue of Penelope. Simultaneously, in the mortal realm, Odysseus reunites with his father, Laërtes. After initially disguising himself as Epêritos to test his father's spirit, Odysseus proves his identity through a boar scar and detailed knowledge of their family orchard. This reunion leads to a final confrontation with the kinsmen of the Suitors, led by Eupeíthes. Although the conflict threatens to escalate into a massacre, Athena intervenes to establish a binding oath of peace, finally securing Odysseus's kingdom and restoring order to Ithaka.

This chapter serves as an introductory guide to the footnotes and translation methodology used in the edition of The Odyssey. It begins by discussing the intersection of archaeology and the Homeric epics, specifically the work of Heinrich Schliemann at Hissarlik. While Schliemann's discoveries of 'Troy VIIa' suggested a historical basis for the Fall of Troy, subsequent scholarship has revealed that the world depicted in the poems is an amalgam of Late Bronze Age and Iron Age elements rather than a strict historical record. The author also clarifies their translation philosophy, opting for a line-for-line approach that preserves literary qualities, contrasting this with the translations of Anthony Verity and Emily Wilson. Additionally, the text provides technical explanations of Greek meter, including the nature of long and short syllables, dactyls, and spondees, and asserts the author's belief that the Iliad preceded the Odyssey.